This month’s newsletter was curated and edited by: J.W. Holloway and his Team

Synopsis

Representatives of entities and those of public health have been encouraging westerners, placing in their mindset, that these foods are linked to heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, to restrict their consumption of red meat and processed byproducts since the 1970s. Nonetheless, a series of analyses have recently been published by an international collaboration of researchers (leaded by Dalhousie University and McMaster University in Canada). Revelations within documentation thereof require a paradigm shift, and it suggests that the dietary recommendations (which discourage, if not forbid the consumption of red meat), a cornerstone of almost any dietary regulation, is not backed up with reliable scientific proof. If it is good for our health to consume less beef and pork, the scientists suggest that these benefits are small. The effects are so slight that they are apparent only in large populations, the scientists said, and they are not sufficient, nor enough basis fact to recommend people to change their diet. Statistically, the test results are among the most significant evaluations ever undertaken and can affect future dietary recommendations. It raises uncomfortable questions about dietary advice and food science in many ways, hence what kind of criteria should these studies follow, going forward without bias. There are also two other essential factors in the possibility of a revivified image for red meat: the growing awareness of food production’s environmental degradation and long-standing concern for livestock used in the agricultural sector.

Commentary

This limited series of the occasional e-letters are comprised of five (5) articles and will appear over a five-month, one per month, which began on the 1 February and will be accessible through Facebook/enhancedexchange.
We are pleased to release the latest issue Part (2!) two summarizes the biology of each extrinsic trait to set the stage for discussions of production system elements that impact each trait. Therefore, we review the scientific literature of the healthfulness of red meats by presenting research results that are both favorable and unfavorable, in this manner an attempt to obtain a clear vision of the healthfulness of eating red meat is obtainable. Because of the pervasive impact of total fat content and fatty acid profile on beef quality, especially aspects concerning the appearance, tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and healthfulness, the biological considerations and the production system elements impacting these issues are explored throughout these E-letters. This second section will focus on a more general approach as to why red meat is beneficial to your health. Nevertheless, because food safety is a primal necessity for consumer satisfaction, discussion of production system elements necessary for food safety was undertaken for deliberation and remains of primal importance, and, therefore, will be the topics of discussions separately in future E-letters.

Analysis

Contribution to Prevention of Heart Disease & Diabetes

Protein Hydrolysates

Both meat and fish protein hydrolysates have been ascribed many relevant bioactivities (Ahmed and Muguruma, 2010; and Vercruysse, VanCamp, and Smagghe, 2005), particularly in the moderation of hypertension by causing angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition (Ryan et al., 2011). They have also been implicated as factors reducing visceral fat deposition possibly through a regulatory role in bile acid metabolism (Liaset et al., 2011) or through their role in the induction of satiety (Cudennec et al., 2012). Meat protein hydrolysates absorbed in the duodenum have been shown to stimulate the release of cholecystokinin, a primary gut-produced peptide hormone that induces satiety, resulting in lower dietary intake due to smaller and less frequent meals (Steinert and Beglinger, 2011).

Meat protein hydrolysates have also been shown to stimulate specific signaling pathways that lead to improved insulin response through increased release of incretins such as glucagon-like-peptide 1 (GLP-1) (Reimer, 2006). This could be useful in the prevention/treatment of conditions caused by decreased insulin sensitivity such as obesity, diabetes II, and hypertension (Ahmed and Muguruma, 2010) because GLP-1 reduces food intake through alteration of hypothalamic appetite regulation (De Silva et al., 2011). L-glutamine produced by meat catabolism also stimulates the secretion of GLP-1 (Oya et al., 2013; and Tolhurst et al., 2011). The combined action or synergy resulting from several different but concurrent stimuli originating from dietary meat protein hydrolysates may prove useful in preventing or treating metabolic syndrome (Holst and McGill, 2012 and Young et al., 2013).

ACE Inhibition

Angiotensin I-converting Enzyme (ACE) is instrumental in the renin-angiotensin system, and therefore is essential in maintaining blood pressure homeostasis, fluid and salt balance, local tissue growth, and inflammation (Guang et al., 2012). Peptides generated from enzymatic hydrolysis of the insoluble myofibrillar muscle protein fraction (Vercruysse et al., 2005) and the sarcoplasmic muscle protein fraction (Jang and Lee, 2005) have ACE-inhibitory activity. Collagen is a bioactive tissue (Saiga et al., 2003) that, under gastrointestinal hydrolysis, catabolizes to peptides that have an ACE-inhibitory effect. ACE achieves its role in blood pressure homeostasis by cleaving inactive angiotensin I (Ang-I), which is released from the liver as angiotensinogen and converted to Ang-I by renin. The product of ACE hydrolysis is angiotensin II (Ang-II), which stimulates vasoconstriction resulting in hypertension (Guang et al., 2012).

We follow the science in a determining order, thus, blocking the activity of ACE prevents the blood pressure increase induced by Ang-II. Guang and Phillips (2009) reported that meat derived ACE inhibitors might have more tissue affinity and be more slowly eliminated than the synthetic ACE inhibitors often recommended for controlling blood pressure. Collagen hydrolysates are also potential therapeutic agents for osteoarthritis and osteoporosis through the provision of necessary components for renewing bone collagen (Deal and Moskowitz, 1999; and Moskowitz, 2000).

Nucleotides and Nucleosides

Although man can synthesize nucleotides (Walker, 1994), dietary sourced nucleotides are deemed conditionally essential during times of stress, including the stress associated with growth and development, recovery from injury, infection, and individual disease states (Hess and Greenberg, 2012; and Carver and Walker, 1995). Most dietary nucleotides are absorbed as nucleosides and subsequently re-phosphorylate in the enterocyte (Uauy et al., 1994). Because of the limited capacity of the enterocytes for nucleotide synthesis and because nucleotides are needed in cell synthesis, dietary nucleotides enhance the growth, differentiation, and maturation of intestinal epithelial cells (Rodriguez-Serrano et al., 2010; and Sanderson and He, 1994). Dietary nucleotides have also been implicated in increasing the formation of mucosal protein, the concentration of DNA, and the length of the villi in the small intestine (Carver and Walker, 1995; and Uauy et al., 1990). During exercise and physical training, dietary nucleotides can be supportive of the immune system, decrease cortisol levels, and alleviate stress symptoms (Mc Naughton, Bentley, and Koeppel, 2006; and 2007).

Fatty Acids

Dietary fat has both a positive and negative impact on human health (Kamihiro et al., 2015).  The FAO paper 91 (FAO, 2010) is a consensus statement for dietary guidelines concerning fat and fatty acid consumption. This report recommends a maximum of (35%) thirty-five percent of dietary energy intake from fat but also a minimum of (15–20%) fifteen to twenty percent to ensure sufficient requirements, but not excessive intake of energy, fat-soluble antioxidants, vitamins A, D, and E, and essential fatty acids. The FAO report, as well as other reports, including the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) opinion (EFSA, 2010), have recommendations for individual fatty acids rather than total fat consumption or major fatty acid groups (e.g., saturated fatty acids). Differentiation is made, however, as to recommendations for omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n−3) and between α-linolenic acid (C18:3 n−3, ALA) and its longer chain derivatives eicosapentaenoic acid (C22:5 n–3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n−3, DHA). EFSA considers ALA intakes to be satisfactory but recommends increased consumption of n−3 longer chain fatty acids (n−3LC).

In contrast to n−3, omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n−6) recommendations focus on total n−6 intake [linoleic acid (C18:2 c9, 12, LA) and its longer chain metabolic products including arachidonic acid (C20:4 n−6, AA)] (Wood et al., 2008). The dietary fatty acid profile has been given a human health status equivalent to caloric intake (Hu, Manson, and Willett, 2001; and Westerling and Hedrick, 1979; and Smith et al., 2006). Therefore, the fatty acid profile is an essential determinant in the health properties of beef. This is true because long-chain omega-3 (or n−3) fatty acids vary in beef and have been associated with the prevention of coronary artery disease, hypertension, arthritis, diabetes, cancer, and inflammatory and autoimmune disorders (Simopoulos, 1999; and Delgado-Lista et al., 2012). Consumers, at least in some markets, have been reported to be willing to pay more for beef that possesses a healthier fatty acid profile (Lusk and Parker, 2009).

There is consensus among human nutritionists concerning the role of n−3 in reducing inflammation and risk of chronic conditions such as heart disease (Calder, 2004), although n−3 are highly concentrated in the brain and nerve tissue facilitating cognitive and behavioral function (Ruxton et al., 2007). Red meats are considered to be essential sources of n−3 LC in the West (Howe et al., 2006; McAfee et al., 2011; and Meyer et al., 2003). Howe et al. (2006) postulated that red meat could provide approximately half of the total dietary intake of n−3 LC in Australian diets, of which beef was estimated to be the most significant contributor (23.3%) twenty-three-point three percent. Therefore, red meat can be considered as nutritionally beneficial in that it provides essential fatty acids (LA, ALA, and AA) and other beneficial fatty acids, including CLA, oleic acid, and n−3 LC. On the other hand, as discussed later, red meat is also high in saturated fatty acids that have been linked to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and colon cancer (McAfee et al., 2010; and Scollan et al., 2006).

Red meat has been criticized, not only for having fat that has a high proportion of saturated fatty acids but also for being a primary source of fat in diets of meat-eaters. This fat intake has a potential impact on chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, and cancers, but the actual fat content of lean beef from roughage-based diets can be low at (2–5%) two to five percent (Scollan et al., 2006). Cow’s milk and red meats are dietary sources of CLA, which have been linked to a range of health benefits such as the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and certain cancers. However, because of the current lack of research, there are presently no recognized dietary guidelines for CLA intake (Bhattacharya et al., 2006). Fatty acids are deposited in distinctive depots as structural phospholipids in cell and organelle membranes as well as neutral lipids in the following: 1) intramuscular fat (IMF) resulting in marbling between fibers within muscles, 2) inter-muscular fat (between different muscles), 3) subcutaneous fat (SCF), 4) peritoneal fat, and 5) kidney, heart, and pelvic fat (KPH) (Kamihiro et al., 2015).

Partitioning of fat between these depots and the associated fatty acid profiles in primal carcass cuts are influenced by animal genetics, age, sex, feeding regimes, and fabrication techniques (Scollan et al., 2006; and Wood et al., 2008). Subcutaneous fat is primarily a physiological hedge against cold or nutritional stress through its physical insulation role and its proximity to the whole animal. Therefore, the subcutaneous fat depot is relatively non-discriminatory in its incorporation of specific fatty acids. In contrast, lipids stored within muscles function through the provision of quick energy for muscular contraction. Therefore, these depots are sensitive to which amino acids are incorporated preferentially accumulating long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in phospholipids to ensure cellular fluidity, ease of metabolism, and function. PUFA concentrations tend to be consistently high within phospholipids, although they become diluted with more saturated FA and neutral lipid triglycerides as cattle age and/or become fatter and accumulate greater IMF.

Beef IMF consists of (45–48%) forty-five to forty-eight percent saturated fatty acid (SFA), (35–45%) thirty-five to forty-five percent monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and about (5%) five percent PUFA (Scollan et al., 2006) typically with PUFA: SFA ratio of (0.11) point one one (Wood et al., 2008). Subcutaneous fat typically has a lower PUFA content and PUFA: SFA ratio (0.05) point zero five (Wood et al., 2008). Ip et al. (1994) estimated humans need to consume (3g) three grams of conjugated linoleic acid/d as a deterrent of cancer, and this provided an initial target for enriching animal products. Also, CLA biosynthesized in the rumen have been reported to have anti-obesity and anti-carcinogenic effects (Buccioni et al., 2012; and Koba et al., 2007). As a result of their linkage to human health (Simopoulos, 1999), North American regulatory agencies have approved food labeling claims for total n-3 fatty acids. For example, in Canada, this level is ≥300 mg per serving (CFIA, 2003). Although this claim applies to all n-3 fatty acids, these compounds differ in their biological activity with long-chain (18+ carbon) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids perceived to be more potent in maintaining health (Bailey, 2009; and Lunn and Theobald, 2006).

These are most commonly found in foods from marine sources, but because some cultures consume limited levels of these foods, other sources can play a significant role (e.g., in Australia, beef accounts for (28%) twenty-eight percent of the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake) (Howe et al., 2006). Dietary trans-monoenoic fatty acids (trans-fat, TFA) have been reported to have a protective role against coronary heart diseases, in contrast to the reported detrimental role of iTFA (Gebauer et al., 2011; Salter, 2013; and Wang et al., 2012). However, the frequency and dose of dietary rTFA consumption required to cause these effects on human health remain unclear (Wang et al., 2012). Ruminant trans-18:1 fatty acid isomers are quantitatively the most critical TFA in beef muscle.

Trans Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Because trans fatty acids have been reported to have adverse effects on cardiovascular health, their content in foods has recently been scrutinized (Mensink et al. 2003). Foods derived from ruminants are currently exempt from requiring labeling of their trans-fatty acid contents in many countries (Health-Canada 2006; and Duham, 2009). This decision was primarily based on the assumption that vaccenic and rumenic acids are the primary trans fatty acids in ruminant fats, and that they have a neutral or possibly net health benefit for consumers. The finding that vaccenic acid is not the main trans fatty acid isomer in youthful Canadian beef, however, has resulted in investigations to try to limit the production of less desirable trans fatty acids, particularly t10-18:1. In an attempt to accomplish this, feeding buffer (sodium sesquicarbonate) in a barley grain-based diet was reported to reduce t10/t11-18:1 ratio in beef, but the effectiveness was lost over the feeding period (Aldai, Dugan, and Kramer, 2010; and Aldai et al., 2010a,b). Including antibiotics in the feed may also inhibit bacteria that produce specific trans-18:1 isomers. 

Aldai et al. (2008), however, found that feeding several antibiotics such as tylosin, chlortetracycline, and sulfamethazine did not alter the concentration of t10-18:1 in barley-based diets. The lack of response, however, may have been related to the relatively low level of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diets, as Mir et al. (2008) found that including tylosin in a barley diet supplemented with sunflower seeds resulted in an increase in t10-18:1. Consistent with this, the ionophore monensin has also been shown to increase t10-18:1 in milk fat under conditions of feeding dairy cows sunflower seed oil (Cruz-Hernandez et al., 2006). The effects of fatty acids with trans double bonds on health have been extensively reviewed (Odegaard and Pereira, 2006; Combe et al., 2007; Gebauer et al., 2007; Malpuech-Brugere et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2009; and Dugan et al., 2011). Many trans fatty acids, no doubt, have adverse effects on human health in terms of cardiovascular disease and may have a further adverse impact in terms of diabetes, cancer, and other diseases.

Efforts to understand the effects of trans fatty acids on human health have, however, been confounded because all trans fatty acid isomers do not equally impact physical, biological, and health properties. In the past decade, the emphasis of regulatory agencies has been on limiting the intake of trans fatty acids. One source of trans fats in human diets is from industrially produced partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, which can contain variable concentrations (Stender et al., 2006) and many different trans fatty acid isomers (Cruz-Hernandez et al., 2004). A second primary source of trans fats is from ruminant meat and milk, but these are mainly in the form of the conjugated linoleic acids: vaccenic and rumenic acids. Both vaccenic (Field et al., 2009) and rumenic acid (Field, and Schley, 2004; and Bhattacharya et al., 2006) have demonstrated positive health effects through their anti-cancer activity and their potential impact on coronary heart disease and immune function.

North American grain-fed beef (Canada; Aldai et al., 2009 and the United States; Leheska et al., 2008) have been shown to contain more t10-18:1 than vaccenic acid and many other polyunsaturated fatty acid biohydrogenation intermediates (Dugan et al., 2011). Most investigations of trans fatty acids have dealt with rumenic acid and its comparison with the other conjugated linoleic acid isomers such as t10,c12-18:2, and the trans-18:1 isomer vaccenic acid. The consumption of t10,c12-18:2 was initially reported to benefit health because its ingestion is associated with a change in body composition toward less fat and more lean muscle mass in animal models (Dugan et al., 1997, 2001), but it also has been reported that its consumption is associated with insulin resistance in men with metabolic syndrome (Riserus et al., 2002) and to insulin resistance and inflammation in human adipocytes which, in turn, have been reported to be linked with the release of intracellular calcium (Kennedy et al., 2010).

Results from rabbits fed butter enriched with either t10-18:1 or in combination with vaccenic and rumenic acids showed that t10-18:1 negatively affects plasma lipoprotein profiles and enhances aortic fatty streak formation (Bauchart et al., 2007; and Roy et al. 2007). In human studies, dairy products enriched with vaccenic and rumenic acids have shown limited effects on plasma lipoprotein profiles (Desroches et al., 2005; and Tricon et al., 2006), but the levels studied may have been too low to elicit responses (Dugan et al., 2011). Compared with industrially produced partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, however, vaccenic and rumenic acids have some beneficial effects in humans but not when consumed at elevated levels (Motard- Belanger et al., 2008). The number of potential biohydrogenation products increases as the number of double bonds increases in polyunsaturated fatty acids. These biohydrogenation metabolites may have divergent health effects (Dugan et al., 2011).

Saturated Fatty Acids

Although some beef saturated fatty acids have negative health effects (Grundy, 1994; Kromhout et al., 1995; and Nicolosi et al., 1998), not all are detrimental to health (Berner, 1993; Yu et al., 1995; and Judd et al., 2002). As discussed above, in addition to saturated FA, beef also contains many healthful fatty acids: monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 and n-6), and conjugated linoleic acid (Chin et al., 1992; Hu et al., 1999; Baghurst, 2004; and Daley et al., 2010).

Conjugated Linoleic Acids

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) have been discussed above in reference to the fatty acid profile of beef. Further discussion is merited here to focus on their biological activity and the possibility to design beef through alteration of production system elements to have higher concentrations of CLA. CLA is a class of positional and geometric isomers of octadecadienoic acid found in beef and other red meats. These have been reported to be anti-carcinogenic compounds in studies employing extracts of grilled beef (Schmid et al., 2006). Several CLA isomers are formed from linoleic acid by rumen bacterial isomerases; however, the primary CLA in meat, rumenic acid (C18:2 cis9, trans11), is mostly synthesized by desaturation of vaccenic acid (C18:1 trans11) in the adipose tissue (Schmid et al., 2006). In addition to its anti-carcinogenic property, CLA has been reported to have anti-atherosclerotic, antioxidative, and immunomodulatory properties (Azain, 2003). CLA may also play a role in the reduction of obesity, and the related risk of diabetes, and modulation of bone metabolism (Young et al., 2013). Mean CLA content in the beef between 1 and 10 mg/g fat has been reported (Schmid et al., 2006).

Antioxidants

Proteolysis associated with the aging and cooking of red meats releases biologically active peptides that have antioxidant properties. Consumption of meat products rich in these natural antioxidants has been shown to reinforce the endogenous antioxidant efficacy reducing oxidative stress and ROS-induced tissue damage associated with degenerative diseases (Valenzuela, Sanhueza, and Nieto, 2003). Natural phenolic antioxidants in red meats are of general effectiveness in promoting overall health at least partially by protecting gastrointestinal tract health (Halliwell, Rafter, and Jenner, 2005). Unlike most antioxidants that work exclusively by stabilizing free radicals and inhibiting radical propagation, antioxidant peptides also exert other biological functions such as having antihypertensive, anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and opioid activities (Mine, Li-Chan, and Jiang, 2010).

It is the general perception among consumers in the developed world that red meat consumption should be reduced for health reasons. This perception emanates from scientific hypotheses supported by numerous epidemiological cohort studies, but the validity of the methods used in these studies including the criteria used for inclusion/exclusion, method of sample selection, and the procedure to account for autocorrelated responses has come under suspicion by the scientific community. (McNeill and Van Elswyk, 2012; and Young et al., 2013). Micha, Michas, and Mozaffarian (2012) performed a meta-analysis in which they reported no increase in risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) or type II diabetes resulting from consumption of unprocessed meat, whereas a higher risk of developing CHD was associated with consumption of processed meat, presumably due to the relatively high content of sodium.

Research on methodology to reduce the health risks of eating meat has focused on means of reducing formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (Dundar, Saricoban, and Yilmaz, 2012; and Viegas et al., 2012), manipulation of lipid composition (Pestana et al., 2012), and reduction of salt content (Ferrini et al., 2012; and Guardia et al., 2006). In summary, the focus of the relationship between meat consumption and health research can be characterized as damage control, not on possible nutritional advantages of meat consumption (Young et al., 2013). This is in contrast to the focus of recent research on fruit and vegetable consumption that has been in the area of advantages for human health. However, there is a current trend for meat research to focus on health-promoting aspects of meat consumption, especially on production system elements that are elastic to beef healthful attributes. 

Several endogenous antioxidants (e.g., glutathione, uric acid, spermine, carnosine, and anserine) characteristic of red meat have been reported (Decker, Livisay, and Zhou, 2000). Both carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) and anserine (N-β-alanyl-1-methyl-L-histidine) are antioxidative histidyl dipeptides abundant in red meats (Guiotto et al., 2005). The antioxidant activity of these dipeptides apparently results from their ability to chelate transition metals (e.g., copper, zinc, and cobalt) and form complexes with them. Depending on the metal ion bound, the complexes display an array of biological functions (Baran, 2000). For example, the carnosine-zinc complex alleviates gastric mucosal injuries, suppresses stomach ulcers, and inhibits pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori (Matsukura and Tanaka, 2000). These antioxidative peptides also function in wound healing, recovery from fatigue, and prevention of stress-related diseases. Carnosine and anserine are only found in red meat, poultry, and some fish but not in foods of plant origin (Decker, Livisay, and Zhou, 2000).

Contribution to Prevention of Cancer

Phytanic Acid

One of the fatty acids synthesized by ruminant microorganisms from green forage is phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethyl hexanoic acid). This saturated branched fatty acid is synthesized from phytol, which is cleaved from chlorophyll and subsequently oxidized and hydrogenated to form phytanic acid (Patton and Benson, 1966). The phytanic acid content of lean beef varies greatly dependent on the animal’s diet (the chlorophyll content) but has been reported to be about 4 mg/100 g and over 300 mg/100 g in beef fat (Brown et al., 1993). The concentration of phytanic acid in human plasma depends entirely on the content of phytanic acid in the diet and ranges from 0.486 (for vegans) to 5.77 μM (for meat-eaters) (Allen et al., 2008). Phytanic acid has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of prostate carcinoma cells in culture (Tang et al., 2007).

Conclusion

Downstream from our article, and in accordance with many types of research, red meat does contribute to the prevention of heart disease and diabetes, as red meat contains protein hydrolysates that have bioactivities in the regulation of hypertension but also are factors reducing visceral fat deposition. Hydrolysates also play a role in the induction of satiety and improving the insulin response. Hence, hydrolysates usefulness in the prevention/treatment of conditions caused by decreased insulin sensitivity, such as obesity, diabetes II, and hypertension. Furthermore, the ACE Inhibition induced by the consumption of red meat helps to maintain blood pressure homeostasis. Red meat is also an alternative source of nucleotides, which can be crucial in times of stress (growth, injury, infection). Quite invisibly, it is also important to realize that we are bound to the knowledge we know. Accordingly, there are currently no official dietary recommendations for CLA consumption due to the current lack of research.

Moreover, red meat can be considered nutritionally beneficial in that it provides essential and non-essential fatty acids. Nevertheless, red meat is also high in saturated fatty acids that have been linked to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. Interestingly, these proportions fluctuate based on animal genetics, age, sex, feeding regimes, and fabrication techniques. Despite the positive effects previously quoted, red meat contains many trans fatty acids, which have adverse effects on human health in terms of cardiovascular disease and may have a further adverse impact in terms of diabetes, cancer, and other diseases. However, not all trans fatty acids harm our health. Such illustration would be both vaccenic and rumenic acid, which have anti-cancer activity and their potential impact on coronary heart disease and immune function. In a different fashion, conjugated linoleic acids have been reported to have anti-atherosclerotic, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidative, and immunomodulatory properties.

Interestingly, red meat also contains antioxidative peptides that function in wound healing, recovery from fatigue, and prevention of stress-related diseases. Carnosine and anserine are such examples, only found in red meat, poultry, and some fish but not in foods of plant origin. Findings of fact, along with concerns of the red meat contributing to the Prevention of Cancer, it is essential to understand that phytanic acid has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of prostate carcinoma cells in culture. Furthermore, the concentration of phytanic acid in human plasma depends entirely on the content of phytanic acid in the diet and ranges from (0.486) point four eight six (for vegans) to (5.77 μM) five-point seven seven (for meat-eaters). Like we have previously overflown, fatty acids can be positive or negative for our health. We want to proceed further, more in-depth on this controversial subject. Therefore, Please join us on the (1) first of next month for Part (3!) Three in order to learn more about The Benefits of Fatty Acids. Thereafter, each month for our monthly delivery of insightful, informative must-reads from some of the world’s scientific thinkers. Selected by our editors.

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